ScienceDaily (Oct. 10, 2011) — In the moments before you "stop and smell the roses," it's likely your brain is already preparing your sensory system for that familiar floral smell. New research from Northwestern Medicine offers strong evidence that the brain uses predictive coding to generate "predictive templates" of specific smells -- setting up a mental expectation of a scent before it hits your nostrils.
Predictive coding is important because it provides animals -- in this case, humans -- with a behavioral advantage, in that they can react more quickly and more accurately to stimuli in the surrounding environment.
The study, published in the Oct. 6 issue of the journal Neuron, was led by Christina Zelano, a postdoctoral fellow in the lab of Jay Gottfried, M.D., associate professor of neurology at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine and attending physician at Northwestern Memorial Hospital.
The researchers used functional MRI techniques and cutting-edge, pattern-based analysis to identify the existence of predictive coding in the olfactory cortex of the brain, where the sense of smell is housed.
While it may not be obvious that predictive templates in the olfactory system give modern-day humans a behavioral advantage, Zelano said people often overlook the power of the sense of smell.
"If somebody hands you a bottle of milk and asks, 'Is this milk rotten?' there may not be any visual clues to help you accurately determine if the milk has spoiled, so you rely on your sense of smell," Zelano said. "Our study indicated that if your brain can successfully form a template of a rotten milk smell, then you would more accurately determine whether that milk is rotten and therefore you are less likely to get sick. These predictive templates can give us an important advantage."
In the study, subjects performed "odor search tasks" while being monitored inside an MRI scanner. The two scents used in the study were a watermelon smell and a Play-Doh-like smell.
Before each trial began, subjects were told which of two target smells they should try to identify. A visual countdown, informing the subjects that they should get ready to receive a specific odor was administered and then, after smelling the odor, subjects indicated by pressing a button whether they thought the target smell was present. Sometimes the target scent administered was the same as the subject was foretold, sometimes it was different, and sometimes the target scent was hidden in a mixture of other scents.
The researchers were able to look at the activity pattern of the brain before any odor arrived and found that, for trials where the target was the same, the activity pattern was more correlated than when the target was different.
"Our study confirmed the existence of predictive coding mechanisms in olfaction," said Gottfried, senior author of the study. "We found that the entirety of the olfactory cortex we looked at did form predictive templates that were very specific to the targeted smell. "
Predictive templates have been studied in the visual system, but this is the first study to examine the spatiotemporal evolution of activity patterns in the human olfactory cortex.
This study was supported by the National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders.
Showing posts with label science. Show all posts
Showing posts with label science. Show all posts
Monday, October 10, 2011
History of Fullers Earth
History reveals that a particular kind of clay was use for cleaning woollen cloth for nearly seven thousand years. The process of cleansing and thickening cloth is known as “Fulling” and a person engaged in its trade and practice is called a “Fuller”. Hence the term derived was “Fuller’s Earth”.
In prehistoric times whole wool and fleece were smelly and contained many sorts of impurities. To counter this problem the woollen industries used to soak pieces of cloth in some alkaline solution and then agitated it in a trough or vat containing slurry of Fuller’s Earth. Several rinses with clean water were given later to remove the earth, which carried away with it most of the grease, dirt, smell and fecal matter remaining in the raw wool.
Other ancient uses of Fuller’s Earth (Scientifically known as Calcium Montmorillonite) are:-
LAUNDERING
Fuller’s Earth was used in laundries for removing oil and grease from heavily soiled dungarees, work gear and the like. Fuller’s Earth was very effective for scouring and fulling as it is far less gritty. Indeed Fuller’s Earth is better than soap or solvents for cleaning heavily oil-soiled textiles, such as dirty mats from motor cars. It is now known that it helps to prevent redeposition of soil when present in a complex household laundry detergent.
PHARMACY
Fuller’s Earth was mainly used at that time as an antidote to poison due to its superb adsorption properties. Including food poisoning and for the staunching of blood. Other uses included –a remedy for gastric disorders and diarrheas.
ADSORPTION OF ALKALOIDS
Some literatures suggest that Fuller’s Earth adsorbed alkaloids; it was especially effective in precipitating morphine from a solution of its sulphate. Fuller’s Earth was most active with caffeine, quinoline, nicotine, peperidine and adenine.
COSMETICS
FACE PACKS
Fuller’s Earth tones up the skin. Improves the complexion. Smoothes out wrinkles. It has a softening and preservation action upon skin of hands and face. Is tender to all skin types. It is very effective in treating oily skin as a deep pore cleanser to draw out hidden oils and grime.
Twentieth-century beauticians are clearly well aware of a Fuller’s Earth paste’s capacity to draw oil or fatty matter into itself as it dries out.
FOOT CARE
In earlier times and mainly during World War 2 sore and inflamed feet were soothed in a dispersion of Fuller’s Earth in water.
EXTERNAL APPLICATIONS
Research during the war times established that Lewisite poison gas blisters healed rapidly when bandages containing Fuller’s earth powder were applied.
To remove stains or spots of DNOC (dinitroorthocresol), the agricultural spraying poison, Fuller’s Earth should be applied as a paste, allowed to dry and then brushed off, according to official advice.
Another way in which Fuller’s Earth is applied to the skin is a hot plaster for drawing pus and reducing inflammation.
Fuller’s Earth was used as a styptic; used in preventing dermatitis in dye houses by dusting onto the face after being given a base coating of cream.
Fuller’s Earth in veterinary practice is usually applied as a poultice in the cure of sore places on horses.
Fuller’s Earth has also been used in tooth paste and laxatives.
Application of Fuller’s Earth pastes need not, of course, be confined to the face and neck, though in the modern world Fuller’s Earth is also in vogue for washing hair. If you have oily hair it works like a miracle.
Other applications include treatment of bedsores and rheumatic joints.
Recently the pastes have been applied also to the whole body of models by artists and photographers who wish to see their female nude in a new way.
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING
Fuller’s Earth must of course have served from very early times in household cleaning. Many books of household management have countless recipes of Fuller’s Earth.
A simple method to clean oil, grease spillage or kitchen stains from walls, wall-paper or floors is to spray it with dry Fuller’s Earth powder and leave for a while and wipe with a cloth. You can repeat the procedure if the stain persists. This is a very safe method as it will not affect the paint or colour of your wall paper.
For very stubborn stains you can spread Fuller’s Earth paste with water over the stain and leave it for 24 hrs, dust it later and wipe with a wet cloth.
Fuller’s Earth powder is also effective as a cleaner of porcelain, bone china and other crockery. A Fuller’s Earth paste also effectively cleans window and glass panes.
Fuller’s Earth paste can also be used to clean delicate fabrics with stubborn stains like that of blood.
There are some accounts of Fuller’s Earth power also being used in the manufacture of soaps used for cleaning clothes in saline water.
HOUSE PETS AND FURRY ANIMALS
House pets and furry animals can also be cleaned using Fuller’s Earth powder as it is a safe, non-toxic and naturally occurring mineral.
Fuller’s Earth is also widely used all over the world as cat litter, due to its high absorption capacity, deodorization properties, non-toxicity and natural earth colour which makes the animals feel at home while defecating.
SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL USES
Since over a century and till date the major use of Fuller’s Earth is for decolorizing animal, vegetable and petroleum oils, fats, greases, waxes and solvents.
There are even accounts of Fuller’s Earth being used to decolorize beer.
Granular Fuller’s Earth is used to improve UV spectrometer readings and PNC values of petroleum base oil distillates.
Cat litter.
Cosmetic creams and face packs.
Pharmaceuticals.
Agricultural pesticide carriers.
Manufacture of various catalysts used in the petroleum and chemical industries.
In prehistoric times whole wool and fleece were smelly and contained many sorts of impurities. To counter this problem the woollen industries used to soak pieces of cloth in some alkaline solution and then agitated it in a trough or vat containing slurry of Fuller’s Earth. Several rinses with clean water were given later to remove the earth, which carried away with it most of the grease, dirt, smell and fecal matter remaining in the raw wool.
Other ancient uses of Fuller’s Earth (Scientifically known as Calcium Montmorillonite) are:-
LAUNDERING
Fuller’s Earth was used in laundries for removing oil and grease from heavily soiled dungarees, work gear and the like. Fuller’s Earth was very effective for scouring and fulling as it is far less gritty. Indeed Fuller’s Earth is better than soap or solvents for cleaning heavily oil-soiled textiles, such as dirty mats from motor cars. It is now known that it helps to prevent redeposition of soil when present in a complex household laundry detergent.
PHARMACY
Fuller’s Earth was mainly used at that time as an antidote to poison due to its superb adsorption properties. Including food poisoning and for the staunching of blood. Other uses included –a remedy for gastric disorders and diarrheas.
ADSORPTION OF ALKALOIDS
Some literatures suggest that Fuller’s Earth adsorbed alkaloids; it was especially effective in precipitating morphine from a solution of its sulphate. Fuller’s Earth was most active with caffeine, quinoline, nicotine, peperidine and adenine.
COSMETICS
FACE PACKS
Fuller’s Earth tones up the skin. Improves the complexion. Smoothes out wrinkles. It has a softening and preservation action upon skin of hands and face. Is tender to all skin types. It is very effective in treating oily skin as a deep pore cleanser to draw out hidden oils and grime.
Twentieth-century beauticians are clearly well aware of a Fuller’s Earth paste’s capacity to draw oil or fatty matter into itself as it dries out.
FOOT CARE
In earlier times and mainly during World War 2 sore and inflamed feet were soothed in a dispersion of Fuller’s Earth in water.
EXTERNAL APPLICATIONS
Research during the war times established that Lewisite poison gas blisters healed rapidly when bandages containing Fuller’s earth powder were applied.
To remove stains or spots of DNOC (dinitroorthocresol), the agricultural spraying poison, Fuller’s Earth should be applied as a paste, allowed to dry and then brushed off, according to official advice.
Another way in which Fuller’s Earth is applied to the skin is a hot plaster for drawing pus and reducing inflammation.
Fuller’s Earth was used as a styptic; used in preventing dermatitis in dye houses by dusting onto the face after being given a base coating of cream.
Fuller’s Earth in veterinary practice is usually applied as a poultice in the cure of sore places on horses.
Fuller’s Earth has also been used in tooth paste and laxatives.
Application of Fuller’s Earth pastes need not, of course, be confined to the face and neck, though in the modern world Fuller’s Earth is also in vogue for washing hair. If you have oily hair it works like a miracle.
Other applications include treatment of bedsores and rheumatic joints.
Recently the pastes have been applied also to the whole body of models by artists and photographers who wish to see their female nude in a new way.
HOUSEHOLD CLEANING
Fuller’s Earth must of course have served from very early times in household cleaning. Many books of household management have countless recipes of Fuller’s Earth.
A simple method to clean oil, grease spillage or kitchen stains from walls, wall-paper or floors is to spray it with dry Fuller’s Earth powder and leave for a while and wipe with a cloth. You can repeat the procedure if the stain persists. This is a very safe method as it will not affect the paint or colour of your wall paper.
For very stubborn stains you can spread Fuller’s Earth paste with water over the stain and leave it for 24 hrs, dust it later and wipe with a wet cloth.
Fuller’s Earth powder is also effective as a cleaner of porcelain, bone china and other crockery. A Fuller’s Earth paste also effectively cleans window and glass panes.
Fuller’s Earth paste can also be used to clean delicate fabrics with stubborn stains like that of blood.
There are some accounts of Fuller’s Earth power also being used in the manufacture of soaps used for cleaning clothes in saline water.
HOUSE PETS AND FURRY ANIMALS
House pets and furry animals can also be cleaned using Fuller’s Earth powder as it is a safe, non-toxic and naturally occurring mineral.
Fuller’s Earth is also widely used all over the world as cat litter, due to its high absorption capacity, deodorization properties, non-toxicity and natural earth colour which makes the animals feel at home while defecating.
SUMMARY OF CONVENTIONAL USES
Since over a century and till date the major use of Fuller’s Earth is for decolorizing animal, vegetable and petroleum oils, fats, greases, waxes and solvents.
There are even accounts of Fuller’s Earth being used to decolorize beer.
Granular Fuller’s Earth is used to improve UV spectrometer readings and PNC values of petroleum base oil distillates.
Cat litter.
Cosmetic creams and face packs.
Pharmaceuticals.
Agricultural pesticide carriers.
Manufacture of various catalysts used in the petroleum and chemical industries.
Cancer Breakthrough: Scientists Discover Harmless Bacteria In Soil Kills Cancer Tumors
A bacterial strain that specifically targets tumours could soon be used as a vehicle to deliver drugs in frontline cancer therapy. The strain is expected to be tested in cancer patients in 2013 says a scientist at the Society for General Microbiology’s Autumn Conference at the University of York. The therapy uses Clostridium sporogenes – a bacterium that is widespread in the soil. Spores of the bacterium are injected into patients and only grow in solid tumours, where a specific bacterial enzyme is produced. An anti-cancer drug is injected separately into the patient in an inactive ‘pro-drug’ form. When the pro-drug reaches the site of the tumour, the bacterial enzyme activates the drug, allowing it to destroy only the cells in its vicinity – the tumour cells. Researchers at the University of Nottingham and the University of Maastricht have now overcome the hurdles that have so far prevented this therapy from entering clinical trials. They have introduced a gene for a much-improved version of the enzyme into the C. sporogenes DNA. The improved enzyme can now be produced in far greater quantities in the tumour than previous versions, and is more efficient at converting the pro-drug into its active form. A fundamental requirement for any new cancer therapy is the ability to target cancer cells while excluding healthy cells. Professor Nigel Minton, who is leading the research, explains how this therapy naturally fulfils this need. “Clostridia are an ancient group of bacteria that evolved on the planet before it had an oxygen-rich atmosphere and so they thrive in low oxygen conditions. When Clostridia spores are injected into a cancer patient, they will only grow in oxygen-depleted environments, i.e. the centre of solid tumours. This is a totally natural phenomenon, which requires no fundamental alterations and is exquisitely specific. We can exploit this specificity to kill tumour cells but leave healthy tissue unscathed,” he said. The research may ultimately lead to a simple and safe procedure for curing a wide range of solid tumours. “This therapy will kill all types of tumour cell. The treatment is superior to a surgical procedure, especially for patients at high risk or with difficult tumour locations,” explained Professor Minton. “We anticipate that the strain we have developed will be used in a clinical trial in 2013 led by Jan Theys and Philippe Lambin at the University of Maastricht in The Netherlands. A successful outcome could lead to its adoption as a frontline therapy for treating solid tumours. If the approach is successfully combined with more traditional approaches this could increase our chance of winning the battle against cancerous tumours.” Contacts and sources: Laura Udakis Society for General Microbiology
Earth’s Gold, Platinum Came From Meteors Say Scientists Bling came from space:
Earth’s gold and platinum arrived in a meteor shower that lasted 200MILLION years........ There’s enough gold and platinum on Earth for a 4m-thick layer that covers the entire surface By TED THORNHILL All the world’s gold and platinum ore came from outer space after a mammoth meteorite shower battered the Earth more than four billion years ago, scientists revealed today. Researchers also discovered there is enough gold and platinum in the Earth’s core to plate the surface of the globe with a layer of priceless bling four meters thick. These huge gold deposits appeared during the Earth’s formation when molten iron sank to its centre, dragging with it vast quantities of precious metals. Rock on: Gold and platinum arrived on Earth from space, claim scientists This left the Earth lacking gold and platinum until a cataclysmic meteor shower bombarded the earth 200 million years later. A staggering 20 billion billion tonnes of meteorite matter, including gold and platinum, slammed into the earth during the 200million-year-long shower. Geologists at the University of Bristol have discovered this mammoth meteorite shower replenished the earth’s lost reserves of precious metals. Rock samples found in Greenland – which were formed at the Earth’s formation – contained a marginally higher ratio of the tungsten isotope 182W compared to more modern rock. Therefore, modern rock must have come from a meteorite shower which proves today’s gold and platinum deposits came from outer space. Spaced out: Gold arrived on Earth during a monster meteor shower lasting 200 million years Dr Matthias Willbold and Professor Tim Elliott, of the Bristol Isotope Group in the School of Earth Sciences, led the research. Dr Willbold said: ‘Extracting tungsten from the rock samples and analysing its isotopic composition to the precision required was extremely demanding given the small amount of tungsten available in rocks. ‘In fact, we are the first laboratory world-wide that has successfully made such high-quality measurements. ‘Our work shows that most of the precious metals on which our economies and many key industrial processes are based have been added to our planet by lucky coincidence when the Earth was hit by about 20 billion billion tonnes of asteroidal material.’ The metals from these earth-shattering meteorites were stirred into the planet’s mantle by gigantic convection processes. These later emerged in newly formed continents, concentrated in the ore deposits which are mined today. The research, published in Nature, was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council, the Science and Technology Facilities Council and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
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